Moreover, language, social norms, warfare and cooperative breeding are unnecessary for the evolution of xenophilic sharing. These results indicate that other-regarding preferences toward strangers are not uniquely human. However, this prosociality has its limitations because bonobos will not donate food in their possession when a social interaction is not possible. Their prosociality is in part driven by unselfish motivation, because bonobos will even help strangers acquire out-of-reach food when no desirable social interaction is possible. We show that bonobos will forego their own food for the benefit of interacting with a stranger. In four experiments, we therefore examined whether bonobos will voluntarily donate food to strangers. However, bonobos, our closest living relative, are highly tolerant and, in the wild, are capable of having affiliative interactions with strangers. This puzzling phenomenon has led many to suggest that sharing with strangers originates from human-unique language, social norms, warfare and/or cooperative breeding. Humans are thought to possess a unique proclivity to share with others – including strangers.
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